Parkour vs Artistic Gymnastics among Pre-Adolescents: A Multidimensional Study on the Psychological Adjustment in the Sport Activities ()
The aim of💵 this cross-sectional study was to investigate psychological differences between Parkour at non-competitive level and Artistic Gymnastics at competitive level in💵 the pre-adolescent stage.
Specifically, psychological aspects strictly related to sporting activities, such as motivation, anxiety and self-confidence, life satisfaction, and well-being💵 were analyzed.
86 pre-adolescents participated in the study (Parkour Group-PG, n = 43; Artistic Gymnastic Group-AG, n = 43) aged between💵 9 and 14 years (mean age 11.5 ± 1.
6 years, 62% of female), who completed a self-report questionnaire consisting of💵 following measures: Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-28), Competitive State Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2), Multidimensional Students' Life Satisfaction Scale (MSLSS), and Psychological💵 Well-Being Scales (PWB).
Results showed that pre-adolescents in the AG have higher values in intrinsic motivation for execution than their peers💵 in the PG.
This latter also have lower levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety and greater self-confidence than the AG group.
In💵 addition, the friend's dimension concerning life satisfaction has a higher score in the PG than in the AG.
Finally, no differences💵 were found regarding well-being between the two pre-adolescent groups.
1.Introduction
The scientific community ( Boreham & Riddoch, 2001; McMurray et al.
, 2003;💵 Cale, 2004) confirms that physical activity and sports performed regularly produce a series of benefits, especially if started from an💵 early age.
Sports activity is often an important tool for the psychological and physical development of the person, as it affects💵 the musculoskeletal system, circulation, breathing, motor coordination, as well as promoting social inclusion.
Although psychological and physical benefits can come from💵 participating in competitive sports ( Frederick & Ryan, 1995; Gill, Williams, & Reifsteck, 2017), for many children and adolescents this💵 can also lead to impaired self-esteem and mood disorders, particularly when young people are under pressure ( Brustad, 1988; Wiersma,💵 2000).
Bringing children closer to sporting activity should be an element of fundamental importance in school and after school.
In fact, in💵 term of well-being the main concerns of families and schools are fundamentally related to the choice of an activity that💵 is as complete as possible for correct psychophysical development of the children ( Bailey et al., 2009).
Sport, in addition to💵 promoting mental development, developing physical and coordination skills, plays a crucial role in the social and interpersonal relationships ( Bailey,💵 2005; Zucchetti et al., 2013).
It is therefore essential to respect and support the motivations, dreams and desires of children.
Some studies💵 reward recreational sports as less pressing and anxiety inducing ( Brustad, 1988; Balague, 1999; Milavić et al.
, 2013; Mottaghi et💵 al.
, 2013) for children by promoting higher levels of well-being and satisfaction.
Allen & Tsukahara (1974) argues that the passion for💵 physical activity experienced as a game, carried out non-competitive, favors higher levels of commitment, concentration and motivation.
However, several authors argue💵 that competitive motor activity leads to positive effects on a psychophysical level ( Vallerand et al.
1992; Deci & Ryan, 1985;💵 Frederick & Ryan, 1995).
Based on these considerations, the present study focuses on the relationships between aspects related to the well-being💵 of pre-adolescents who practice two sports, different in terms of competition level: Artistic Gymnastics and Parkour.
Artistic Gymnastics is a stimulating💵 sport that requires long hours of practice to reach a certain level of competence and rigorous training to achieve the💵 necessary strength and endurance.
As a result, gymnasts face many challenges, such as intense training, competition and difficulties in maintaining good💵 physical shape during adolescence ( Davis, 1997).
Due to its rigor and since training begins at an early age, coaches and💵 parents are closely involved in the development of the individual and play critical roles in shaping the sports experience and💵 the athlete's self-concept.
The expectations and pressures of adults can lead young athletes to experience high levels of stress, pain and💵 self-loathing, just as support and encouragement can lead to joy, a sense of challenge and an increase in self-esteem (💵 Goudas et al., 1995).
Previous studies ( Horn, 2004; Weiss et al.
, 2004) showed that various psychological, emotional, social and environmental💵 aspects undergo changes during childhood and adolescence.
Participation in competitions in this sensitive phase can lead to excessive loads on the💵 individual, both physically and psychologically ( Tofler et al., 1996).Amac et al.
(2002), report that the self-esteem of girls (aged between💵 10 and 13 years), practicing competitive Artistic Gymnastics, was significantly lower than the self-esteem of girls who practice Artistic Gymnastics💵 at a non-competitive level.
This result, as pointed out by the authors, would be due to different characteristics of the competitive💵 environment compared to the recreational one, such as pressure created by competition.
Kerr & Goss (1997) found that elite gymnasts between💵 the ages of 11 and 17 reported lower self-esteem scores than young people of the same age, while anxiety levels💵 did not differ significantly.
In Artistic Gymnastics, young athletes are required to perform movements on various gravity-defying equipment and can arouse💵 emotions such as fear, worry and anxiety, often related to the risk of physical injury ( Cartoni et al., 2005).
Fear💵 of competition failure, such as feelings of inadequacy, can create high levels of stress and less sporting enjoyment ( Feltz💵 & Ewing, 1987).
However, Artistic Gymnastics is an attractive sport for children and young people because it keeps them motivated due💵 to its competitive nature, its variety of movements and its potential advantages.
Indeed, studies have shown that competition is a factor💵 that motivates gymnasts to stay engaged in sports ( Headstrom & Gould, 2004; Lopes & Nunomura, 2007; Weinberg & Gould,💵 2001).
Parkour has evolved a lot over the last few years: the discipline was originally named as "l'Art du déplacement" (ADD),💵 which translates as "Art of displacement" by the Yamakasi group ( Baffoni, 2010), then it was defined with the term💵 Parkour by David Belle (2009) and as Freerunning from Sebastien Foucan (2010).
Parkour promotes the inclusion of the individual in the💵 group and in society ( Müller et al., 2008).
Parkour is an activity that helps to overcome fears and limitations, dominating💵 both the body and the mind ( Angel, 2011).
It has its own set of values that in many ways differ💵 from both traditional sports and other lifestyles ( Gilchrist & Wheaton, 2011).
Parkour practitioners don't compete against each other; rather, they💵 challenge themselves and their skill level, both physically and mentally ( Gilchrist & Osborn, 2017).
Effort and attitude are rewarded rather💵 than skills.
The Parkour community is characterized by a non-hierarchical, but inclusive and responsible system.
Parkour is less subject to the rules💵 than most sports.
While there are specific techniques, it does not have a distinct set of norms or goals that must💵 be followed ( Gilchrist & Wheaton, 2011).
Parkour has received relatively little attention as a research topic ( Brunner, 2011), but💵 is starting to attract academic interest ( Ameel & Tani, 2012).
Atkinson (2009) interprets it as a new version of flâneurism💵 (an artistic/poetic term to indicate the one who walks without haste in urban contexts, who explores in an unhurried way💵 and free from programs) since Parkour practitioners interpret the urban environment in innovative and playful ways that differ from accepted💵 norms and city rhythms.
Bavinton (2007) examines one of Parkour's core values, which is turning obstacles into opportunities, and says that💵 practitioners reinterpret constraints instead of removing them, thus using spaces in a personal and creative way.
Gilchrist and Wheaton (2011) examined💵 the use of Parkour as a method for reducing antisocial behavior by promoting social inclusion and increasing exercise.
Their research shows💵 that Parkour can promote physical health, well-being and community engagement among groups that do not normally participate in traditional sports💵 and physical activities.
As Guss (2011) argues, despite the individualistic nature of the practice, 'traceurs' have a strong sense of being💵 part of a local and increasingly transnational community, often referred to as the 'Parkour Community'.
David Belle in his book "Parkour"💵 released in 2009, describes Parkour as a discipline without federations or competitions.
Nevertheless, currently the FIG (International Gymnastics Federation) has incorporated💵 Parkour among its disciplines with the approval of Belle (2009) himself.
The situation in recent years has changed a lot on💵 a global level, so much so that movements were born to counter this "misappropriation" by the FIG and federations such💵 as FYAD (Federation YAMAK) were born with the aim of preserving values most authentic and native of the discipline.
Therefore, the💵 aim of this study was to investigate psychological differences between Artistic Gymnastic and Parkour practitioners in a sensitive phase such💵 as the pre-adolescent one.
Specifically, we examined the role of psychological aspects strictly related to sporting activities, such as motivation, anxiety💵 and self-confidence, life satisfaction, and well-being.
2.Methods2.1.Participants
The study participants were 86 subjects (Parkour Group-PG, n = 43; Artistic Gymnastic Group-AG, n💵 = 43) aged between 9 and 14 years (mean age 11.5 ± 1.6 years).
The PG was composed of 32 (74%)💵 males and 11 (26%) females with an average age of 11.4 ± 1.
7 years and a weekly training average of💵 1.49 ± 0.
51 The Parkour Group was formed by athletes at non competitive level.
The GA involved only females (100%) with💵 an average age of 11.7 ± 1.
6 years and a weekly training average of 3.37 ± 1.2.
The Artistic Gymnastics Group💵 was formed by athletes at competitive level, 54% of gymnasts participate in a regional championship and 46% in a national💵 championship.
In the PG, subjects discovered Parkour mostly through the internet (33%), while in the GA only 12% of the subjects💵 made use of the internet.
In the GA, 38% became aware of the activity thanks to friends, while in the PG💵 the latter obtained a percentage of 23%.
The PG athletes were located in two sports clubs in Turin (Piedmont Region, Italy),💵 the AG athletes were located in two sports clubs in the province of Turin (Piedmont Region, Italy).
2.2.Procedure
A self-report, anonymous with💵 validated measures were used to collect data: the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-28; Pelletier et al.
, 1995), the Competitive State Anxiety💵 Inventory 2 (CSAI-2; Martens et al.
, 1990), the Multidimensional Students' Life Satisfaction Scale (MSLSS; Huebner, 1994) and the Psychological Well-Being💵 Scales (PWB; Ryff & Keyes, 1995).
Furthermore, sociodemographic (age, gender, school attended) and sport information (years of training, number of weekly💵 training sessions, competitive and not-competitive level).
Participants were recruited through initial contact with coaches, sports managers and parents by means of💵 an information letter.
The objectives and procedure of the study were explained in detail during a subsequent face-to-face meeting.
The parents then💵 provided written consent for the participation of their children still minors, in accordance with the professional code of ethics of💵 Italian psychologists.
The pre-adolescents completed the self-questionnaire administered by researchers in the months of June and July 2019, respectively before: the💵 final essay for PG and a competition for AG.
The statistical software SPSS version 25 was used to perform the data💵 analysis.
Descriptive statistics were executed for all the interesting variables.
To analyze differences between PG and AG in the psychological constructs unpaired💵 t-tests were used.
2.3.Measures
The SMS-28 ( Pelletier et al.
, 1995), composed by 28 items, consists of seven sub-scales that measure: 1)💵 three types of intrinsic motivation (MI): intrinsic motivation for learning (IA), intrinsic motivation on execution (IE), intrinsic motivation to stimulation💵 (IS); 2) three types of extrinsic motivation (ME): identified (EI), introjected (EN), external (EE); 3) another type such as amotivation💵 (AM).
Participants had to express their degree of truth to the question: "Why do you practice this sport?"; each scale consists💵 of 4 items and the scores associated with them are attributed based on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = absolutely💵 false, 2 = rather false for me, 3 = neither true nor false, 4 = rather true for me, 5💵 = absolutely true).
High scores in MI and ME indicate high levels of motivation, while high scores in AM indicate lack💵 of motivation.
The CSAI-2 ( Martens et al.
, 1990), measures cognitive, somatic anxiety and self-confidence in competitive situations.
It should be given💵 no more than an hour before the competition and ideally as close to it as possible.
Cognitive anxiety (AC) is the💵 mental component of anxiety and is caused by expectations of success or negative self-assessment.
According to Morris, Davis and Hutchings (1981),💵 cognitive anxiety is characterized by a conscious awareness of unpleasant feelings about oneself or by concern from external stimuli.
Somatic anxiety💵 (AS) refers to the physiological and affective elements of anxiety that develop directly from autonomous excitement.
Self-confidence (FD) is an attitude,💵 towards others or towards oneself, which results from a positive evaluation of facts, circumstances, relationships, for which one trusts in💵 others or one's own possibilities, and which generally produces a feeling of security.
The CSAI-2 is made up of 27 items,💵 9 for each dimension analyzed (self-confidence, somatic and cognitive anxiety), the item scores are attributed on the basis of a💵 4-point Likert scale (1 = for nothing; 2 = a little; 3 = enough; 4 = a lot).
High scores demonstrate💵 high levels of anxiety and self-confidence.
The MSLSS ( Huebner, 1994), assesses satisfaction (SO) that the individual perceives of his life💵 in relation to five domains: oneself (SE), family (FM), friends (AI), school(SC) and the living environment(AB).
The domains were selected on💵 the basis of the literature on studies on life satisfaction in childhood, adolescence and adult age ( Huebner, 1994).
This scale💵 has 40 items divided into the five aforementioned domains (7 items relating to oneself-SE, 7 to family-FM, 9 to friends-AI,💵 8 to school-SC, 9 to environment-AB).
The subject is required to indicate for each item how much the statement turns out💵 to be true for him/her on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, 4💵 = almost always).
In coding, items with a negative sign are reversed, thus indicating that high scores demonstrate a high level💵 of satisfaction.
PWB according to Ryff & Keyes (1995), can be described as a multidimensional construct much more articulated than the💵 single idea of happiness; there are many aspects that influence each other with complex interactions.
In this study, a short version💵 was used, consisting of 12 items, taken from the scale of Zani and Cicognani (1999) Psychological Well-being Italian version of💵 Brief Psychological Well-Being Inventory (PWB- Ryff & Keyes, 1995).
This instrument has been used for large-scale national surveys of adolescent subjects💵 ( Sagone & De Caroli, 2014; Ruini et al.
, 2009), has been validated on an Italian population ( Ruini et💵 al.
, 2003) and has good psychometric properties ( Sirigatti et al., 2009).
Four components of well-being (BN) were used, such as:💵 autonomy (AN), self-acceptance (AA), positive interpersonal relationships (RP) and environmental control (CA).
Each of these components was made up of 3💵 items.
Subjects had to express their level of agreement with the statements reported; item scores are assigned on the basis of💵 a 6-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = slightly disagree, 4 = slightly agree, 5💵 = agree, 6 = strongly agreement).
In coding, items with a negative sign are reversed, thus indicating that high scores demonstrate💵 a high level of well-being.
3.Results
Table 1 shows significant differences in the sub-scales belonging to the SMS-28.
T-test analyses revealed statistically significant💵 differences between PG and AG in the intrinsic motivation on execution (IE) sub-scale: IE (T = −2.27; p = 0.
026),💵 with higher values for AG (16.4 ± 2.
3 points) compared to PG (15.2 ± 2.4 points).
No significant differences were detected💵 in the other dimensions of the SMS-28.
Table 2 presents differences between PG and AG for each dimension of the CSAI-2.
One💵 thing that certainly stands out in this study is the significant difference between PG and AG in CSAI-2 regarding all💵 its dimensions: cognitive anxiety (AC; T = −3.59; p = 0.
001), somatic anxiety (AS; T = −4.53; p < 0.
001)💵 and self-confidence (FD; T = 2.72; p = 0.008).
In fact, the PG has on average lower scores of AC (18.9💵 ± 5.
3 points) and AS (19.9 ± 3.
7 points) compared to AG (AC: 23.4 ± 6.4 points; AS: 24.1 ±💵 3.9 points).
Furthermore, the PG obtained a higher average score in self-confidence (FD) (19.7 ± 3.
9 points) than the AG (17.3💵 ± 4.4 points).
In Table 3 are reported differences between PG and AG for each dimension of the MSLSS.
There is a💵 statistically significant difference (T = 2.14; p = 0.
035) between PG and AG in the dimension of the friends (AI).
In💵 fact, the PG (31.2 ± 3.
5 points) has a mean score higher than the AG (29.3 ± 4.6 points).
No statistically💵 significant differences emerged for the other dimensions of the MSLSS.
Regarding the well-being measure (PWB), no statistically significant differences emerged between💵 PG and AG.Table 1.
Differences between PG and AG for each dimension of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-28).
*Statistically significant (p ≤💵 0.05).Table 2.
Differences between PG and AG for each dimension of the Competitive State Anxiety.
Inventory 2 (CSAI-2).
*Statistically significant (p ≤ 0.
05);💵 **Statistically significant (p ≤ 0.001).Table 3.
Differences between PG and AG for each dimension of the multidimensional students' life satisfaction.Scale (MSLSS).
*Statistically💵 significant (p ≤ 0.05).4.
Discussion and Conclusion
This research paper has set itself the objective of investigating possible differences, on a psychological💵 level, between Parkour and Artistic Gymnastics in the pre-adolescent phase.
Regarding the motivation, a significant difference was found in the intrinsic💵 motivation on execution (IE).
In fact, the AG has a higher average score than the PG.
In general, intrinsic motivation refers to💵 engaging in an activity purely for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from doing the activity ( Deci, 1975).
When a person💵 is intrinsically motivated, he will perform the behavior voluntarily, in the absence of material rewards or external constraints ( Deci💵 & Ryan, 1985).
Intrinsic motivation on execution defines itself as engaging in an activity for personal pleasure and satisfaction, for example💵 knowing how to perform and master difficult techniques to establish itself in the reference sports environment ( Deci, 1975; Deci💵 & Ryan, 1985).
Deci & Ryan (1985) and Vallerand et al.
(1992), affirm that individuals who play competitive sports have higher intrinsic💵 motivation levels than those who play non-competitive sports.
Other studies in the scientific community ( Weinberg & Gould, 2001; Headstrom &💵 Gould, 2004; Lopes & Nunomura, 2007), argue that athletes practicing Artistic Gymnastics have high motivation levels.
In Artistic Gymnastics, some studies💵 ( Gould et al.
, 2002; Feltz & Ewing, 1987) have examined possible differences in anxiety between gymnasts (aged between 10💵 and 12 years), who practice competitive and recreational gymnastics.
These studies showed that competitive Artistic Gymnastics produces higher levels of anxiety💵 than recreational Artistic Gymnastics.
Other investigators ( Krane & Williams 1987; Martens et al.
, 1990) have also indicated that gymnasts have💵 higher anxiety than other athletes.
This research confirms what authors previously stated: in our study the AG shows higher levels of💵 somatic anxiety (AS) and cognitive anxiety (AC) compared to PG.
According to Morris et al.
(1981) cognitive anxiety most commonly manifests itself💵 with negative performance expectations and therefore negative self-evaluation.
Somatic anxiety occurs with symptoms such as rapid heart rate, shortness of breath,💵 clammy hands, butterflies in the stomach, and tense muscles.
The PG has also an average score higher than the AG in💵 the dimension of self-confidence (FD).
Self-confidence is one of the most related variables to sport performance ( Robazza & Bortoli, 2007).
As💵 Shabnam (2010) states, in the context of competition, anxiety is often present following a sports competition.
Furthermore, in the competitive context💵 there may be fewer relational ties than the non-competitive one, even if the AG group, in this study, has discovered💵 Artistic Gymnastics, mostly thanks to friends.
It can be said that in the competitive context, friendships are promoted, as gymnasts on💵 average do almost twice-weekly training compared to Parkour practitioners, and also participate in competitions.
Despite this, from what emerged in the💵 analysis, the PG scored higher in the dimension of friends (AI) about life satisfaction, than in the AG.
Regarding the well-being💵 (PWB), no differences emerged neither for the activity practiced.
In light of our results, we can state as Parkour and Artistic💵 Gymnastic are physical activities that share aspects in promoting the psychological adjustment of pre-adolescents, while highlighting distinctive characteristics inherent to💵 the structural specificities that distinguish them.
This paper represents an initial attempt at research in this field with its limitations and💵 strengths.
In fact, in our study, the sample of pre-adolescents was not very large and the two groups of Parkour and💵 Artistic Gymnastics were not homogeneous in terms of gender.
For construction, logistical and timing reasons, the questionnaire was administered only once💵 at the end of the courses in the year 2019.
We chose to treat an age between 9 and 14 as💵 motor activity represents a fundamental element in the psychophysical development of children and adolescents, as well as a valid tool💵 for health promotion ( Bonaiuto, 1982).
In addition, physical activity is a tool of great importance for those phases of existence💵 in which one is most sensitive to the acquisition of skills and competences, namely school age ( Reffieuna, 2011).
Positive associations💵 have been shown between physical activity in adolescents ( Marsh et al.
, 1995) and children ( Gruber, 1986).
Therefore, physical activity💵 has been associated to both physical and psychological gains.
The psychological benefits of physical activity are numerous.
For example, adolescent girls who💵 participate in sports have higher levels of self-esteem and less depression than girls who do not participate in sports (💵 Mutrie & Biddle, 1995; Dishman et al., 2006).
Participation in pre-adolescent sports has been associated with lower levels of loneliness (💵 Page et al.
, 1992) and anxiety ( Kirkcaldy et al.
, 2002; Findlay & Coplan, 2007).
The objectives given by performance and💵 competition represent excellent incentives to participate in competitive sports.
However, issues regarding the latter may be of primary importance for some,💵 while social and relational aspects may be more important for non-competitive athletes.
Precisely at the end of these considerations, the focus💵 of the essay on the a-competitive aspect of Parkour emerges as interesting and important: in young people, anxiety and stress💵 are reduced compared to the competitive structure of Artistic Gymnastics.
The popularity of Parkour has led to a greater demand for💵 instructions on how to start or progress safely ( Angel, 2011).
The spectacular part of Parkour has certainly played a fundamental💵 role in its explosion, in the first years of its diffusion it was also disliked by society as it could💵 represent the stereotype of breaking the rules, inciting young people to commit actions that could risk their lives ( Rosendahl,💵 2018).
Currently, thanks to the Parkour Community and many associations that promote the practice in a conscientious way, there is better💵 knowledge and appreciation from the society.
However, the media and newspapers, at times, report untrue news or associate madness and reckless💵 actions with the practice of Parkour; this seriously damages the image and dissemination of the discipline that actually has very💵 different goals and objectives from putting one's life at risk and carrying out actions that break the law ( Gilchrist💵 & Osborn, 2017).
It would be interesting to propose Parkour, as a recreational motor activity, during school hours or after school,💵 dispelling the myth that it can represent a potential danger for the individual.
In fact, as can be seen from this💵 study, the practice of Parkour at a non-competitive level presents higher levels of self-confidence than Artistic Gymnastics.
Furthermore, Parkour can be💵 a means of social inclusion ( Gilchrist & Wheaton, 2011) and does not require specific expenses or equipment to be💵 practiced.
The indoor Parkour lessons use standard gymnastic equipment, such as vaulting horses, mats, tubular structures.
Although they are used differently than💵 those of an Artistic Gymnastics lesson.
It was not possible to compare Parkour at a non-competitive level with Parkour at a💵 competitive level since the latter in Italy did not still catch on.
It would be interesting in the future to develop💵 this topic in more depth as it needs further research.
For example, through longitudinal investigations it would be possible to understand💵 the change in the processes underlying the adaptation and development of children and adolescents practicing sports such as Parkour and💵 Artistic Gymnastics
