Movement-efficiency athletic training discipline
"Parcours" redirects here.
For the term used in cycle racing, see Glossary of cycling § P
Parkour ( French:👄 [paʁkuʁ]) is an athletic training discipline or sport in which practitioners (called traceurs) attempt to get from point A to👄 point B in the fastest and most efficient way possible, without assisting equipment and often while performing flips.
[5] With roots👄 in military obstacle course training and martial arts, parkour includes flipping, running, climbing, swinging, vaulting, jumping, plyometrics, rolling, and quadrupedal👄 movement-whatever is suitable for a given situation.
[6][7] Parkour is an activity that can be practiced alone or with others, and👄 is usually carried out in urban spaces, though it can be done anywhere.
[8][9] It involves seeing one's environment in a👄 new way, and envisioning the potential for navigating it by movement around, across, through, over and under its features.[10][11]
Although a👄 traceur may perform a flip as well as other aesthetic acrobatic movements, these are not essential to the discipline.
[12] Rather,👄 they are central to freerunning, a discipline derived from parkour but emphasising artistry rather than efficiency.
The practice of similar movements👄 had existed in communities around the world for centuries,[13] notably in Africa[14] and China,[15] the latter tradition (qinggong) popularized by👄 Hong Kong action cinema (notably Jackie Chan) during the 1970s to 1980s.
[15][16][17] Parkour as a type of movement was later👄 established by David Belle when he and others founded the Yamakasi in the 1990s and initially called it l'art du👄 déplacement.
[18][19] The discipline was popularised in the 1990s and 2000s through films, documentaries, video games, and advertisements.
[13][20][21]Etymology [ edit ]
The👄 word parkour derives from parcours du combattant (obstacle course), the classic obstacle course method of military training proposed by Georges👄 Hébert.
[22][23][24] Raymond Belle used the term "les parcours" to encompass all of his training including climbing, jumping, running, balancing, and👄 the other methods he undertook in his personal athletic advancement.
[25] His son, David, further developed his father's methods and achieved👄 success as a stuntman, and one day on a film set showed his 'Speed Air Man' video to Hubert Koundé.
Koundé👄 suggested he change the "c" of "parcours" to a "k" because it was stronger and more dynamic, and to remove👄 the silent "s" for the same reason, forming "parkour".[26]
A practitioner of parkour is called a traceur, with the feminine form👄 being traceuse or simply a "Parkourist".
[6] They are nouns derived from the French verb tracer, which normally means "to trace",👄 as in "tracing a path", in reference to drawing.
[27] The verb tracer used familiarly means: "to hurry up".
[28] The term👄 traceur was originally the name of a parkour group headed by David Belle which included Sébastien Foucan and Stéphane Vigroux.[29]
A👄 jam refers to a meeting of traceurs, involving training lasting anywhere from hours to several days, often with people from👄 different cities.
The first parkour jam was organised in July 2002 by Romain Drouet, with a dozen people including Sébastien Foucan👄 and Stéphane Vigroux.
History [ edit ]Origins [ edit ]
The practice of similar movements have existed in various communities around the👄 world for centuries prior to the foundation of a parkour movement, which was influenced by these earlier traditions.
[13][16][17] Such athletic👄 traditions had existed among various indigenous tribes in Africa for centuries.
[14] A similar discipline in Chinese culture is qinggong, a👄 Chinese martial arts training technique that also dates back centuries.
It was notably taught at the Peking Opera School in the👄 20th century; the school's most notable students are the Seven Little Fortunes, including Sammo Hung and most famously Jackie Chan,👄 providing a basis for their acrobatic stunt work in Hong Kong action cinema from the 1970s onwards.[15][16][17]
Georges Hébert [ edit👄 ]
In Western Europe, a forerunner of parkour was developed by French naval officer Georges Hébert, who before World War I👄 promoted athletic skill based on the models of indigenous tribes he had met in Africa.
[14] He noted, "their bodies were👄 splendid, flexible, nimble, skillful, enduring, and resistant but yet they had no other tutor in gymnastics but their lives in👄 nature.
"[14] His rescue efforts during the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on Saint-Pierre, Martinique reinforced his belief that athletic skill👄 must be combined with courage and altruism.
[14] Hébert became a physical education tutor at the college of Reims in France.
Hébert👄 set up a "méthode naturelle" (natural method) session consisting of ten fundamental groups: walking, running, jumping, quadrupedal movement, climbing, balancing,👄 throwing, lifting, self-defence, and swimming.
These were intended to develop "the three main forces": energetic (willpower, courage, coolness, and firmness), moral👄 (benevolence, assistance, honour, and honesty), and physical (muscles and breath).
[30] During World War I and World War II, teaching continued👄 to expand, becoming the standard system of French military education and training.
Inspired by Hébert, a Swiss architect developed a "parcours👄 du combattant"[31]-military obstacle course-the first of the courses that are now standard in military training and which led to the👄 development of civilian fitness trails and confidence courses.[14]
Raymond and David Belle [ edit ]
Born in 1939 in Vietnam, Raymond Belle👄 was the son of a French physician and Vietnamese mother.
During the First Indochina War, his father died and he was👄 separated from his mother, after which he was sent to a military orphanage in Da Lat at the age of👄 seven.
He took it upon himself to train harder and longer than everyone else in order never to be a victim.
At👄 night, when everyone else was asleep, he would be outside running or climbing trees.
He would use the military obstacle courses👄 in secret, and also created courses of his own that tested his endurance, strength, and flexibility.
Doing this enabled him not👄 only to survive the hardships he experienced during his childhood, but also eventually to thrive.
After the Battle of Dien Bien👄 Phu in 1954, he returned to France and remained in military education until the age of 19, when he joined👄 the Paris Fire Brigade, a French Army unit.[13][32][33]
David Belle is considered the founder of parkour.
Raymond's son, David Belle, was born👄 in 1973.
He experimented with gymnastics and athletics but became increasingly disaffected with both school and the sports clubs.
As he got👄 older, he learned of his father's exploits and was increasingly curious about what had enabled his father to accomplish these👄 feats.
Through conversations with his father, he realised that what he really wanted was a means to develop skills that would👄 be useful to him in life, rather than just training to kick a ball or perform moves in a padded,👄 indoor environment.[13][25]
Through conversations with his father, David learned about this way of training that his father called "parcours".
He heard his👄 father talk of the many repetitions he had done in order to find the best way of doing things.
He learned👄 that for his father, training was not a game but something vital which enabled him to survive and to protect👄 the people he cared about.
David realised that this was what he had been searching for, and so he began training👄 in the same way.
After a time, he found it far more important to him than schooling and he gave up👄 his other commitments to focus all his time on his training.
[25]Yamakasi [ edit ]
David initially trained on his own, and👄 after moving to Lisses, found other young men (including his cousins) who had similar desires, and they began to train👄 together.
[1] The group eventually included David Belle, Sébastien Foucan, Châu Belle Dinh, Williams Belle, Yann Hnautra, Laurent Piemontesi, Guylain N'Guba👄 Boyeke, Malik Diouf, and Charles Perrière.
The group began calling themselves the Yamakasi, from the Lingala ya makási, meaning strong in👄 one's person, or "strong man, strong spirit"[34] (see § Name and split below).
The group drew inspiration from Asian culture and👄 Asian martial arts, notably the acrobatics of Jackie Chan such as qinggong displays in his Hong Kong action films,[16][35][17] and👄 the training philosophy of Bruce Lee,[36] considering the latter to be the "unofficial president" of their group.
[17] The group also👄 was influenced by the Japanese shōnen manga and anime series Dragon Ball, in which the heroes attained extraordinary abilities through👄 hard work, as well as the martial arts films of Belgian actor Jean-Claude Van Damme.
[17]Discipline [ edit ]
The group put👄 themselves through challenges that forced them to find the physical and mental strength to succeed.
Examples included training without food or👄 water, or sleeping on the floor without a blanket to learn to endure the cold.
[37] For example, no one in👄 the group was permitted to be late for training, as it would hold back the whole group.
If any member completed👄 a challenge, everyone else had to do the same thing.
[38] During their training, no one was allowed to complain or👄 be negative.
Few excuses were allowed.
For instance, if someone claimed that his shoes were too worn out in to make a👄 jump, he had to do it anyway, even if it meant doing the jump barefoot.
[39] At the same time, everyone👄 was required to have knowledge of their own limits.[40]
Respecting one's health and physical well-being was one of the foundations of👄 the group.
If any member hurt himself during or after the execution of a movement, the movement was deemed a failure.
A👄 movement executed only once was not considered an achievement; only with repetition was the challenge complete.
Every movement had to be👄 repeated at least ten times in a row without the traceur having to push his limits or sustaining any injury.
If👄 any mistake was made by any traceur in the group everyone had to start all over again.[38]
Humility was an important👄 principle.
[40] No traceur was allowed to feel superior to someone else, for example, by executing a movement only to show👄 off in front of someone who could not perform the movement.
If any traceur in the group claimed that he had👄 completed a difficult and dangerous challenge that should not be attempted unaided, he had to prove his claims by doing👄 the challenge again.
Anyone who lied violated the principle of humility.[38]
To join the group, new members had to be recommended by👄 an existing member and then pass tests to evaluate their motivation for joining.
[39] Despite the huge emphasis on the collective,👄 each traceur had to progress and develop independently-"to create the means to be yourself"[41]-and there was a complete trust within👄 the group.
[40] Every traceur was to encourage the others and show confidence through their behaviour.
[42] If a member violated the👄 principles, the group could meet without the offending person to discuss various punishments.
Anyone deemed unsuitable could be temporarily or even👄 permanently banned from the group in order to uphold its disciplines and values.[43]
Name and split [ edit ]
In 1997, David👄 Belle's brother Jean-François invited the group to perform for the public in a firefighter show in Paris.
[34] For the performance,👄 the group named themselves Yamakasi, from the Congolese Lingala ya makási, meaning strong in one's person, or "strong man, strong👄 spirit".
Sébastien Foucan also invented a name for what they were doing: "l'art du déplacement" (French for "the art of movement").
[34]👄 The firefighter performance caused both positive and negative attention.
Some members of the group were concerned how the public would view👄 their discipline since the performance did not demonstrate all aspects of it, such as their hard training and their values👄 and ethics.
Jean-François also sent pictures and video of the group to a French TV programme, and the popularity of parkour👄 began to increase.
A series of television programmes in various countries subsequently featured video footage of the group, and they began👄 to get more requests for performances.
During this time, conflicting interests arose within the group.
Sébastien Foucan wanted to teach more rather👄 than to train more, and David Belle had the ambition to become an actor.
David and Sébastien chose to leave the👄 group, and used the name "parkour" to describe their activity (see § Etymology above).
The seven remaining Yamakasi members continued to👄 use the term l'art du déplacement[13][44] (see § Derivative terminologies and disciplines below).
Organizations [ edit ]
International parkour organizations include the👄 World Freerunning and Parkour Federation, established in 2007, who have worked with MTV to produce parkour-related shows.
[45]Philosophy [ edit ]
A👄 beginner takes a leap in Seattle's Freeway Park under the guidance of experienced practitioners (2012).
According to Williams Belle, the philosophies👄 and theories behind parkour are an integral aspect of the art, one that many non-practitioners have never been exposed to.
Belle👄 says he trains people because he wants it "to be alive" and "for people to use it".
[46] Châu Belle explains👄 it is a "type of freedom" or "kind of expression"; that parkour is "only a state of mind" rather than👄 a set of actions, and that it is about overcoming and adapting to mental and emotional obstacles as well as👄 physical barriers.
[46] Traceur Dylan Baker says, "Parkour also influences one's thought processes by enhancing self-confidence and critical thinking skills that👄 allow one to overcome everyday physical and mental obstacles".
[46][47][48] A study by Neuropsychiatrie de l'Enfance et de l'Adolescence (Neuropsychiatry of👄 Childhood and Adolescence) in France found traceurs seek more excitement and leadership situations than gymnasts do.[49]
Academic research on parkour has👄 tended to describe how parkour provides a novel way of interacting with the urban environment that challenges the use and👄 meaning of urban space, metropolitan life, and embodiment.[50]
A newer convention of parkour philosophy has been the idea of "human reclamation".
[51]👄 Andy Tran of Urban Evolution clarifies it as "a means of reclaiming what it means to be a human being.
It👄 teaches us to move using the natural methods that we should have learned from infancy.
It teaches us to touch the👄 world and interact with it, instead of being sheltered by it.
"[51] Another traceur[who?] writes, "It is as much as a👄 part of truly learning the physical art as well as being able to master the movements; it gives you the👄 ability to overcome your fears and pains and reapply this to life, as you must be able to control your👄 mind in order to master the art of parkour."[52]
Competition [ edit ]
A campaign was started on 1 May 2007 by👄 the Parkour.
NET portal to preserve parkour's philosophy against sports competition and rivalry.
[53][54] In the words of Erwan Le Corre, "Competition👄 pushes people to fight against others for the satisfaction of a crowd and/or the benefits of a few business people👄 by changing its mindset.
Parkour is unique and cannot be a competitive sport unless it ignores its altruistic core of self-development.
If👄 parkour becomes a sport, it will be hard to seriously teach and spread parkour as a non-competitive activity.
And a new👄 sport will be spread that may be called parkour, but that won't hold its philosophical essence anymore.
"[53] Red Bull's sponsored👄 athlete for parkour, Ryan Doyle, has said, "Sometimes people ask, 'Who is the best at parkour?' and it is because👄 they don't understand what Parkour is; 'Who is the best?' is what you would say about a sport, and parkour👄 is not a sport-it is an art, it's a discipline.
That's like saying, 'What's the best song in the world?'"[55] This👄 seems to be the consensus among many professional traceurs who view parkour as a lifestyle more than as a set👄 of tricks, as has been popularised by YouTube and most media exposure.[citation needed]
There are competitions that use parkour as the👄 main influence for formatting and judging criteria.
Sport Parkour League's "North America Parkour Championships" hosts a series of local and regional👄 qualifier events which culminate in a final event in Vancouver, B.C.
[56] Red Bull's Art of Motion event[57] is the longest👄 running and highest profile professional freerunning competition.
David Belle [ edit ]
In his 2009 book Parkour, David Belle stressed that the👄 most important aspect of parkour is not the physical movements, but rather the practitioner's mentality and understanding of its principles.
"When👄 young trainees come to see me and give me videos telling me to check out what they are doing, I👄 just take the tape and throw it away.
What I'm interested in is what the guy's got in his head, if👄 he has self-confidence, if he masters the technique, if he has understood the principles of parkour.
I just can't deal with👄 guys who do Parkour because they saw videos on the Internet and thought it was kinda cool and want to👄 do even better.
"[58] Further, he states the importance of traceurs being aware of their abilities and limitations, and developing in👄 their own way.
"When a young person asks me, 'Can you show me how to do this?' I simply answer, 'No,👄 I am going to show you how I do it.
Then, you'll have to learn with your own technique, your own👄 way of moving, your style, your abilities and your limitations.
You are going to learn to be yourself, not someone else👄 along the way.'"[59]
The philosophy of parkour has been compared to that of martial arts.
[60] In an interview with The New👄 Yorker, David Belle acknowledges the influence, "There's a quote by Bruce Lee that's my motto: 'There are no limits.
There are👄 plateaus, but you must not stay there, you must go beyond them.
A man must constantly exceed his level.
' If you're👄 not better than you were the day before, then what are you doing-what's the point?"[31] In an interview with the👄 press, Belle explained that parkour is a training method for warriors.
"So many people try to train easy-'Come do parkour! It's👄 really cool!' But if tomorrow I made you do real training, you would end up crying.
That's what you need to👄 know: you are going to cry, you are going to bleed and you are going to sweat like never before.
"[61]👄 In his book, Belle also quotes his father Raymond, "If two roads open up before you, always take the most👄 difficult one.
Because you know you can travel the easy one."[62]
Belle is an influential proponent of discipline and control in parkour,👄 saying, "Precision is all about being measured," and going on to describe parkour as an art that requires huge amounts👄 of repetition and practice to master.
[63] "With parkour, I often say, 'Once is never'.
In other words, someone can manage a👄 jump one time but it does not mean anything.
It can be luck or chance.
When you make a jump, you have👄 to do it at least three times to be sure you can actually do it.
It's an unavoidable rule.
Do it the👄 hard way and stop lying to yourself.
When you come for training, you have to train.
Even if it means doing the👄 same jump fifty or a hundred times.
"[59] To its founder, parkour is a method of self-refinement, used for learning to👄 control and focus oneself.
Practice [ edit ]Movement [ edit ]
A practitioner performing a wall run
While there is no official list👄 of "moves" in parkour, the style in which practitioners move often sets them apart from others,[7] and there are a👄 number of named movements that are characteristic,[18] for example:[64][65][66]
"Parkour roll": Rolling to absorb impacts from larger drops, moving diagonally over👄 a shoulder to convert momentum from vertical to horizontal.
"Precision jump": Jumping and landing accurately with the feet on small or👄 narrow obstacles.
"Arm jump": Jumping and landing feet-first on a vertical surface, catching the horizontal top with the hands.
"Wall run": Running👄 toward a high wall and then jumping and pushing off the wall with a foot to reach the top of👄 the wall.
"Climb up": Moving from a position hanging from a wall-top or ledge, to standing on the top or vaulting👄 over to the other side.
Equipment [ edit ]
A traceuse vaults a railing.
Parkour is practiced without traditional equipment, though items such👄 as bars, walls, and boxes found in the environment in which the parkour is being practiced in, are utilised to👄 better navigate the area.
Practitioners normally train wearing light, non-restrictive casual clothing.
[67][68] Traceurs who wear gloves are rare-bare hands are considered👄 better for grip and tactile feedback.
[69][70] Light running shoes with good grip and flexibility are encouraged because they allow for👄 more natural and fluid movements.
Practitioners often use minimalist shoes, sometimes as a progression to bare feet, for better sensitivity and👄 balance, while others prefer more cushioning for better absorption of impacts from large jumps.
[71] Barefoot training is done by some👄 for movement competency without gear-David Belle noted that "bare feet are the best shoes.
"[72] Various sneaker manufacturers have developed shoes👄 specifically for parkour and freerunning.
Many other companies around the world have started offering clothing targeted at parkour.[73]Risks [ edit ]
Trespassing👄 [ edit ]
Traceurs in Lisses re-painting a wall and repairing shoe scuff marks from parkour
A notice on a wall of👄 the Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art in 2012 prohibiting parkour (removed in 2018)
Parkour is not widely practiced in👄 dedicated public facilities.
Although efforts are being made to create places for it, many traceurs do not like the idea, as👄 it is contradictory to parkour's values of adaptation, creativity, and freedom.
[74] Traceurs practice parkour in both rural and urban areas👄 such as gyms, parks, playgrounds, offices, and abandoned structures.
Concerns have been raised regarding trespassing, damage of property,[75] and use of👄 inappropriate places such as cemeteries.
[76] Many parkour organizations around the globe support the Leave No Trace initiative, an urban version👄 of the outdoor conservation ethic created by the Seattle nonprofit Parkour Visions in 2008, promoting safety, respect for the spaces👄 used and their other users, and sometimes includes picking up rubbish to leave areas in better condition than they were👄 found.
[77][78][79][80][81]
Injuries and deaths [ edit ]
Concerns have been raised by law enforcement and fire and rescue teams about the risks👄 inherent in jumping off high buildings.
[82] They argue that practitioners are needlessly risking damage to both themselves and rooftops by👄 practicing at height, with police forces calling for practitioners to stay off the rooftops.
[75][83][84] Some practitioners of parkour agree that👄 such behaviour should be discouraged.[83][85][86][87]
Because parkour philosophy is about learning to control oneself in interaction with the environment, many parkour👄 experts consider serious injury evidence of the traceur's failure to follow the precepts of the discipline, specifically, knowing one's limitations.
Daniel👄 Ilabaca, co-founder of the World Parkour and Freerunning Federation, said, "Thinking you're going to fail at something gives you a👄 higher risk of doing just that.
Committing to something you're thinking or knowing you will land gives you a higher chance👄 of landing or completing the task.
"[88] On biomechanical grounds, studies found parkour landing techniques result in lower landing forces in👄 comparison with traditional sport techniques.
[89][90] In a survey of parkour-related emergency department visits in the United States between 2009 and👄 2015, most injuries were reportedly caused by landing or from striking objects.[91]
American traceur Mark Toorock said injuries are rare "because👄 participants rely not on what they can't control-wheels or the icy surfaces of snowboarding and skiing-but their own hands and👄 feet.
" Lanier Johnson, executive director of the American Sports Medicine Institute, said that many of the injuries are not reported.[92]Impact👄 [ edit ]
Initially featured in films of French director/producer Luc Besson, parkour was first introduced to the British public by👄 the BBC One TV channel trailer Rush Hour in April 2002.
It featured David Belle leaping across London's rooftops from his👄 office to home, in an attempt to catch his favourite BBC programme,[93] and captured the imagination of many viewers, especially👄 when they learned no special effects or wires were used.
[94] This advertisement, along with others for Coca-Cola, Nike, and Toyota,👄 had a large-scale impact on public awareness of parkour.[18][95]
The creation of parkour show-reels and documentaries has been crucial to the👄 spread of parkour, and is common in the parkour community.
[13][44] Jump London is a 2003 documentary explaining some of the👄 background of parkour, culminating with Sébastien Foucan, Johann Vigroux, and Jérôme Ben Aoues demonstrating their parkour skills.
Jump London changed the👄 presence of parkour in the UK almost overnight and is widely credited for inspiring a new generation of traceurs.
[50] It👄 was followed by Jump Britain in 2005.
Both Jump films were shown in more than 80 countries, thereby introducing the discipline👄 and its philosophy to an unprecedented global audience.
Both films have been cited by numerous practitioners as their motivation for taking👄 up the discipline.
The Australian version of 60 Minutes broadcast a segment about parkour on 16 September 2007, featuring Foucan and👄 Stephane Vigroux.[96]
Parkour is not defined by a set of rules or guidelines, a feature which has proven particularly attractive to👄 young people, allowing them to explore and engage in the activity on their own terms.
It can be easily accepted by👄 all cultures as a means of personal expression and recreation.
[97] For example, in 2010 The New York Times published a👄 short video featuring three young men from the Gaza Strip who were active members of the parkour community.
[98] In 2014,👄 the BBC covered youth parkour participation in Jammu and Kashmir.
Zahid Shah founded the Kashmir Freerunning and Parkour Federation, finding hope👄 in the non-violent discipline of parkour.[99]
Entertainment [ edit ]
Parkour has become a popular element in action sequences, with film directors👄 hiring parkour practitioners as stunt performers.
The first director to do so was Luc Besson, for the film Taxi 2 in👄 1998, followed by Yamakasi in 2001 featuring members of the original Yamakasi group, and its sequel Les fils du vent👄 in 2004.
Also in 2004, Besson wrote District 13, another feature film involving advanced parkour chase sequences, starring David Belle and👄 Cyril Raffaelli,[100][101] followed by the sequel District 13: Ultimatum in 2009 and remade in English as Brick Mansions in 2014.
In👄 2006 the James Bond film Casino Royale featured Sébastien Foucan in a chase taking place early in the movie, sparking👄 renewed media interest in parkour.
[31] Along with The Bourne Ultimatum (2007), Casino Royale is credited with starting a new wave👄 of Parkour-inspired stunts in Western film and television.
[102] Parkour was prominent in Live Free or Die Hard (2007),[103] again with👄 stuntman/actor Cyril Raffaelli, and Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (2010), choreographed by David Belle.
[104] Several films besides Yamakasi👄 are about thieves who use parkour, such as Breaking and Entering (2006),[100][101] Run (2013),[105] and Tracers (2015).
The 2011 film Freerunner👄 is about eight freerunners racing through a city for survival.
The 2019 Netflix film 6 Underground featured several parkour scenes choreographed👄 and performed by team Storror.
[106][107] Parkour also featured in Dhoom 3 (2013),[108] Bang Bang! (2014) and Aadhi (2018).[109]
Parkour is also👄 featured on TV.
MTV's show Ultimate Parkour Challenge premiered as a one-hour special in October 2009 starring the athletes of the👄 World Freerunning & Parkour Federation.
This was followed in May 2010 with a six-episode series of the same name.
The athletes were👄 Daniel Ilabaca, Tim Shieff, Ryan Doyle, Michael Turner, Oleg Vorslav, Ben Jenkin, Daniel Arroyo, Pip Andersen and King David.
The programme👄 format was a two-part weekly competition in different Southern California locations.[110]
Professional wrestler John Hennigan is a long-time practitioner of parkour👄 and often incorporates it into his wrestling style, with the WWE giving him the nickname "The Prince of Parkour".
[111][112] Actor👄 Stephen Amell learned parkour at Tempest Academy in preparation for his role as Oliver Queen in the television series Arrow,[113]👄 and co-star Caity Lotz is also a practitioner.[114]
Modern video games frequently include aspects of parkour as major game-play elements.
Since the👄 series' inception, Tomb Raider series has included increasingly numerous parkour elements.
[115] The Assassin's Creed series also makes heavy use of👄 parkour movement (called freerunning in the game).
[116][117][118] The Mirror's Edge games are heavily inspired by parkour, consisting entirely of efficiently👄 moving around buildings, rooftops, and other obstacles.
[119][120] Brink introduced a parkour mechanic into a realistic first-person shooter.
[121] Prince of Persia👄 and Dying Light include a central parkour mechanic,[122][123] while Crackdown and Crackdown 2 include an emphasis on gripping and vaulting👄 from ledges and protruding objects.
[124] Tony Hawk's American Wasteland allows the character to use several freerunning techniques while not on👄 the skateboard.
[125] Tron Evolution's basic movements and combat were based on parkour and capoeira.[126]
Military training [ edit ]
Although parkour itself👄 grew out of military obstacle-course training,[13][32] it has become a separate discipline.
After the attention that parkour received following the 2006👄 film Casino Royale, military forces around the world began looking for ways to incorporate elements from parkour into military training.
A👄 physical trainer with the Royal Marines trained with parkour practitioners with hopes of introducing some of their techniques to his👄 own students.
[127] Colorado Parkour began a project to introduce elements from parkour into the U.S.
military[128] and one San Diego staff👄 sergeant trained US Marines in parkour.[129]
Scientific research and applications [ edit ]
Studies have found that in exercises such as the👄 standing long jump, depth jump, and vertical jump, parkour athletes outperform physical educators,[citation needed] gymnasts, and power athletes.
[130] Parkour training👄 is especially linked with the development of eccentric load resistance and jumping ability.
A study into the mechanics of the standing👄 long jump showed that experienced traceurs use a lower take off angle than beginners (-25.6° vs -34°).
[131] Wakai and Linthorne👄 had previously estimated the optimal angle to be close to 22.6°.[132]
Studies and experiments have integrated parkour kinaesthetics into robotics.
[133][134][135][136]
Derivative terminologies👄 and disciplines [ edit ]
In September 2003, Mike Christie's documentary Jump London, starring Sébastien Foucan, was released.
In the documentary, the👄 term "freerunning" was used as an attempt to translate "parkour", in order to make it more appealing to the English-speaking👄 audience.
[137] Foucan decided to keep using the term "freerunning" to describe his discipline, to distinguish it from David Belle's methods.[138][139]
The👄 remaining seven Yamakasi members continued to use the term "l'art du déplacement", also not wanting to associate it too closely👄 with parkour.
Similar to Sébastien's freerunning, l'art du déplacement is less about the hard discipline of the original Yamakasi group; rather,👄 it takes a participatory approach focused on making the teaching more accessible.
David Belle kept the term "parkour", saying the group👄 contributed to the development of it, but that his father was the source of his motivation and had verbally communicated👄 this method only to him.[139]
Both parkour and freerunning encompass the ideas of overcoming obstacles and self-expression; in freerunning, the greater👄 emphasis is on self-expression.
[138] Although the differences between the disciplines are often hard to discern, practitioners tend to aspire to👄 parkour and describe themselves as traceurs rather than as freerunners.
[140]See also [ edit ]Citations [ edit ]
General and cited sources👄 [ edit ]
Angel, Julie (2011).Ciné Parkour .Julie Angel.
ISBN 978-0-9569717-1-5 .
Belle, David & Perriére, Charles.
Parkour: From the Origins to the Practise👄 .
Belle, David (2009).Parkour.Intervista.
ISBN 978-2-35756-025-3 .
